Concept

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A concept is an abstract idea that serves as a foundation for more concrete principles, thoughts, and beliefs.^[1] Concepts play an important role in all aspects of cognition.^[2]^[3] As such, concepts are studied within such disciplines as linguistics, psychology, and philosophy, and these disciplines are interested in the logical and psychological structure of concepts, and how they are put together to form thoughts and sentences. The study of concepts has served as an important flagship of an emerging interdisciplinary approach, cognitive science.^[4]

In contemporary philosophy, three understandings of a concept prevail:^[5]

mental representations, such that a concept is an entity that exists in the mind (a mental object)
abilities peculiar to cognitive agents (mental states)
Fregean senses, abstract objects rather than a mental object or a mental state

Concepts are classified into a hierarchy, higher levels of which are termed "superordinate" and lower levels termed "subordinate". Additionally, there is the "basic" or "middle" level at which people will most readily categorize a concept.^[6] For example, a basic-level concept would be "chair", with its superordinate, "furniture", and its subordinate, "easy chair".

Concepts may be exact or inexact.^[7] When the mind makes a generalization such as the concept of tree, it extracts similarities from numerous examples; the simplification enables higher-level thinking. A concept is instantiated (reified) by all of its actual or potential instances, whether these are things in the real world or other ideas.

Concepts are studied as components of human cognition in the cognitive science disciplines of linguistics, psychology, and philosophy, where an ongoing debate asks whether all cognition must occur through concepts. Concepts are regularly formalized in mathematics, computer science, databases and artificial intelligence. Examples of specific high-level conceptual classes in these fields include classes, schema or categories. In informal use, the word concept can refer to any idea.

Ontology of concepts

A central question in the study of concepts is the question of what they are. Philosophers construe this question as one about the ontology of concepts—what kind of things they are. The ontology of concepts determines the answer to other questions, such as how to integrate concepts into a wider theory of the mind, what functions are allowed or disallowed by a concept's ontology, etc. There are two main views of the ontology of concepts: (1) Concepts are abstract objects, and (2) concepts are mental representations.^[8]

Concepts as mental representations

The psychological view of concepts

Within the framework of the representational theory of mind, the structural position of concepts can be understood as follows: Concepts serve as the building blocks of what are called mental representations (colloquially understood as ideas in the mind). Mental representations, in turn, are the building blocks of what are called propositional attitudes (colloquially understood as the stances or perspectives we take towards ideas, be it "believing", "doubting", "wondering", "accepting", etc.). And these propositional attitudes, in turn, are the building blocks of our understanding of thoughts that populate everyday life, as well as folk psychology. In this way, we have an analysis that ties our common everyday understanding of thoughts down to the scientific and philosophical understanding of concepts.^[9]

The physicalist view of concepts

In a physicalist theory of mind, a concept is a mental representation, which the brain uses to denote a class of things in the world. This is to say that it is literally a symbol or group of symbols together made from the physical material of the brain.^[10]^[11] Concepts are mental representations that allow us to draw appropriate inferences about the type of entities we encounter in our everyday lives.^[11] Concepts do not encompass all mental representations, but are merely a subset of them.^[10] The use of concepts is necessary to cognitive processes such as categorization, memory, decision making, learning, and inference.^[12]

Concepts are thought to be stored in long term cortical memory,^[13] in contrast to episodic memory of the particular objects and events which they abstract, which are stored in hippocampus. Evidence for this separation comes from hippocampal damaged patients such as patient HM. The abstraction from the day's hippocampal events and objects into cortical concepts is often considered to be the computation underlying (some stages of) sleep and dreaming. Many people (beginning with Aristotle) report memories of dreams which appear to mix the day's events with analogous or related historical concepts and memories, and suggest that they were being sorted or organized into more abstract concepts. ("Sort" is itself another word for concept, and "sorting" thus means to organize into concepts.)

Concepts as abstract objects

The semantic view of concepts suggests that concepts are abstract objects. In this view, concepts are abstract objects of a category out of a human's mind rather than some mental representations.^[8]

There is debate as to the relationship between concepts and natural language.^[5] However, it is necessary at least to begin by understanding that the concept "dog" is philosophically distinct from the things in the world grouped by this concept—or the reference class or extension.^[10] Concepts that can be equated to a single word are called "lexical concepts".^[5]

The study of concepts and conceptual structure falls into the disciplines of linguistics, philosophy, psychology, and cognitive science.^[11]

In the simplest terms, a concept is a name or label that regards or treats an abstraction as if it had concrete or material existence, such as a person, a place, or a thing. It may represent a natural object that exists in the real world like a tree, an animal, a stone, etc. It may also name an artificial (man-made) object like a chair, computer, house, etc. Abstract ideas and knowledge domains such as freedom, equality, science, happiness, etc., are also symbolized by concepts. A concept is merely a symbol, a representation of the abstraction. The word is not to be mistaken for the thing. For example, the word "moon" (a concept) is not the large, bright, shape-changing object up in the sky, but only represents that celestial object. Concepts are created (named) to describe, explain and capture reality as it is known and understood.^{[citation needed]}

A priori concepts and a posteriori concepts

Kant maintained the view that human minds possess not only empirical or a posteriori concepts, but also pure or a priori concepts. Instead of being abstracted from individual perceptions, like empirical concepts, they originate in the mind itself. He called these concepts categories, in the sense of the word that means predicate, attribute, characteristic, or quality. But these pure categories are predicates of things in general, not of a particular thing. According to Kant, there are twelve categories that constitute the understanding of phenomenal objects. Each category is that one predicate which is common to multiple empirical concepts. In order to explain how an a priori concept can relate to individual phenomena, in a manner analogous to an a posteriori concept, Kant employed the technical concept of the schema. He held that the account of the concept as an abstraction of experience is only partly correct. He called those concepts that result from abstraction "a posteriori concepts" (meaning concepts that arise out of experience). An empirical or an a posteriori concept is a general representation (Vorstellung) or non-specific thought of that which is common to several specific perceived objects (Logic §1, Note 1)

A concept is a common feature or characteristic. Kant investigated the way that empirical a posteriori concepts are created.

The logical acts of the understanding by which concepts are generated as to their form are:
comparison, i.e., the likening of mental images to one another in relation to the unity of consciousness;

reflection, i.e., the going back over different mental images, how they can be comprehended in one consciousness; and finally

abstraction or the segregation of everything else by which the mental images differ ...
In order to make our mental images into concepts, one must thus be able to compare, reflect, and abstract, for these three logical operations of the understanding are essential and general conditions of generating any concept whatever. For example, I see a fir, a willow, and a linden. In firstly comparing these objects, I notice that they are different from one another in respect of trunk, branches, leaves, and the like; further, however, I reflect only on what they have in common, the trunk, the branches, the leaves themselves, and abstract from their size, shape, and so forth; thus I gain a concept of a tree.

— Logic, §6

Embodied content

In cognitive linguistics, abstract concepts are transformations of concrete concepts derived from embodied experience. The mechanism of transformation is structural mapping, in which properties of two or more source domains are selectively mapped onto a blended space (Fauconnier & Turner, 1995; see conceptual blending). A common class of blends are metaphors. This theory contrasts with the rationalist view that concepts are perceptions (or recollections, in Plato's term) of an independently existing world of ideas, in that it denies the existence of any such realm. It also contrasts with the empiricist view that concepts are abstract generalizations of individual experiences, because the contingent and bodily experience is preserved in a concept, and not abstracted away. While the perspective is compatible with Jamesian pragmatism, the notion of the transformation of embodied concepts through structural mapping makes a distinct contribution to the problem of concept formation.^{[citation needed]}

Realist universal concepts

Platonist views of the mind construe concepts as abstract objects.^[14] Plato was the starkest proponent of the realist thesis of universal concepts. By his view, concepts (and ideas in general) are innate ideas that were instantiations of a transcendental world of pure forms that lay behind the veil of the physical world. In this way, universals were explained as transcendent objects. Needless to say, this form of realism was tied deeply with Plato's ontological projects. This remark on Plato is not of merely historical interest. For example, the view that numbers are Platonic objects was revived by Kurt G?del as a result of certain puzzles that he took to arise from the phenomenological accounts.^[15]

Sense and reference

Gottlob Frege, founder of the analytic tradition in philosophy, famously argued for the analysis of language in terms of sense and reference. For him, the sense of an expression in language describes a certain state of affairs in the world, namely, the way that some object is presented. Since many commentators view the notion of sense as identical to the notion of concept, and Frege regards senses as the linguistic representations of states of affairs in the world, it seems to follow that we may understand concepts as the manner in which we grasp the world. Accordingly, concepts (as senses) have an ontological status.^[8]

Concepts in calculus

According to Carl Benjamin Boyer, in the introduction to his The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development, concepts in calculus do not refer to perceptions. As long as the concepts are useful and mutually compatible, they are accepted on their own. For example, the concepts of the derivative and the integral are not considered to refer to spatial or temporal perceptions of the external world of experience. Neither are they related in any way to mysterious limits in which quantities are on the verge of nascence or evanescence, that is, coming into or going out of existence. The abstract concepts are now considered to be totally autonomous, even though they originated from the process of abstracting or taking away qualities from perceptions until only the common, essential attributes remained.

Notable theories on the structure of concepts

Classical theory

The classical theory of concepts, also referred to as the empiricist theory of concepts,^[10] is the oldest theory about the structure of concepts (it can be traced back to Aristotle^[11]), and was prominently held until the 1970s.^[11] The classical theory of concepts says that concepts have a definitional structure.^[5] Adequate definitions of the kind required by this theory usually take the form of a list of features. These features must have two important qualities to provide a comprehensive definition.^[11] Features entailed by the definition of a concept must be both necessary and jointly sufficient for membership in the class of things covered by a particular concept.^[11] A feature is considered necessary if every member of the denoted class has that feature. A set of features is considered sufficient if having all the parts required by the definition entails membership in the class.^[11] For example, the classic example bachelor is said to be defined by unmarried and man.^[5] An entity is a bachelor (by this definition) if and only if it is both unmarried and a man. To check whether something is a member of the class, you compare its qualities to the features in the definition.^[10] Another key part of this theory is that it obeys the law of the excluded middle, which means that there are no partial members of a class, you are either in or out.^[11]

The classical theory persisted for so long unquestioned because it seemed intuitively correct and has great explanatory power. It can explain how concepts would be acquired, how we use them to categorize and how we use the structure of a concept to determine its referent class.^[5] In fact, for many years it was one of the major activities in philosophy—concept analysis.^[5] Concept analysis is the act of trying to articulate the necessary and sufficient conditions for the membership in the referent class of a concept.^{[citation needed]} For example, Shoemaker's classic "Time Without Change" explored whether the concept of the flow of time can include flows where no changes take place, though change is usually taken as a definition of time.^{[citation needed]}

Arguments against the classical theory

Given that most later theories of concepts were born out of the rejection of some or all of the classical theory,^[14] it seems appropriate to give an account of what might be wrong with this theory. In the 20th century, philosophers such as Wittgenstein and Rosch argued against the classical theory. There are six primary arguments^[14] summarized as follows:

It seems that there simply are no definitions—especially those based in sensory primitive concepts.^[14]
It seems as though there can be cases where our ignorance or error about a class means that we either don't know the definition of a concept, or have incorrect notions about what a definition of a particular concept might entail.^[14]
Quine's argument against analyticity in Two Dogmas of Empiricism also holds as an argument against definitions.^[14]
Some concepts have fuzzy membership. There are items for which it is vague whether or not they fall into (or out of) a particular referent class. This is not possible in the classical theory as everything has equal and full membership.^[14]
Experiments and research showed that assumptions of well defined concepts and categories might not be correct. Researcher Hampton^[16] asked participants to differentiate whether items were in different categories. Hampton did not conclude that items were either clear and absolute members or non-members. Instead, Hampton found that some items were barely considered category members and others that were barely non-members. For example, participants considered sinks as barely members of kitchen utensil category, while sponges were considered barely non-members, with much disagreement among participants of the study. If concepts and categories were very well defined, such cases should be rare. Since then, many researches have discovered borderline members that are not clearly in or out of a category of concept.
Rosch found typicality effects which cannot be explained by the classical theory of concepts, these sparked the prototype theory.^[14] See below.
Psychological experiments show no evidence for our using concepts as strict definitions.^[14]

Prototype theory

Prototype theory came out of problems with the classical view of conceptual structure.^[5] Prototype theory says that concepts specify properties that members of a class tend to possess, rather than must possess.^[14] Wittgenstein, Rosch, Mervis, Brent Berlin, Anglin, and Posner are a few of the key proponents and creators of this theory.^[14]^[17] Wittgenstein describes the relationship between members of a class as family resemblances. There are not necessarily any necessary conditions for membership; a dog can still be a dog with only three legs.^[11] This view is particularly supported by psychological experimental evidence for prototypicality effects.^[11] Participants willingly and consistently rate objects in categories like 'vegetable' or 'furniture' as more or less typical of that class.^[11]^[17] It seems that our categories are fuzzy psychologically, and so this structure has explanatory power.^[11] We can judge an item's membership of the referent class of a concept by comparing it to the typical member—the most central member of the concept. If it is similar enough in the relevant ways, it will be cognitively admitted as a member of the relevant class of entities.^[11] Rosch suggests that every category is represented by a central exemplar which embodies all or the maximum possible number of features of a given category.^[11] Lech, Gunturkun, and Suchan explain that categorization involves many areas of the brain. Some of these are: visual association areas, prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, and temporal lobe.

The Prototype perspective is proposed as an alternative view to the Classical approach. While the Classical theory requires an all-or-nothing membership in a group, prototypes allow for more fuzzy boundaries and are characterized by attributes.^[18] Lakoff stresses that experience and cognition are critical to the function of language, and Labov's experiment found that the function that an artifact contributed to what people categorized it as.^[18] For example, a container holding mashed potatoes versus tea swayed people toward classifying them as a bowl and a cup, respectively. This experiment also illuminated the optimal dimensions of what the prototype for "cup" is.^[18]

Prototypes also deal with the essence of things and to what extent they belong to a category. There have been a number of experiments dealing with questionnaires asking participants to rate something according to the extent to which it belongs to a category.^[18] This question is contradictory to the Classical Theory because something is either a member of a category or is not.^[18] This type of problem is paralleled in other areas of linguistics such as phonology, with an illogical question such as "is /i/ or /o/ a better vowel?" The Classical approach and Aristotelian categories may be a better descriptor in some cases.^[18]

Theory-theory

Theory-theory is a reaction to the previous two theories and develops them further.^[11] This theory postulates that categorization by concepts is something like scientific theorizing.^[5] Concepts are not learned in isolation, but rather are learned as a part of our experiences with the world around us.^[11] In this sense, concepts' structure relies on their relationships to other concepts as mandated by a particular mental theory about the state of the world.^[14] How this is supposed to work is a little less clear than in the previous two theories, but is still a prominent and notable theory.^[14] This is supposed to explain some of the issues of ignorance and error that come up in prototype and classical theories as concepts that are structured around each other seem to account for errors such as whale as a fish (this misconception came from an incorrect theory about what a whale is like, combining with our theory of what a fish is).^[14] When we learn that a whale is not a fish, we are recognizing that whales don't in fact fit the theory we had about what makes something a fish. Theory-theory also postulates that people's theories about the world are what inform their conceptual knowledge of the world. Therefore, analysing people's theories can offer insights into their concepts. In this sense, "theory" means an individual's mental explanation rather than scientific fact. This theory criticizes classical and prototype theory as relying too much on similarities and using them as a sufficient constraint. It suggests that theories or mental understandings contribute more to what has membership to a group rather than weighted similarities, and a cohesive category is formed more by what makes sense to the perceiver. Weights assigned to features have shown to fluctuate and vary depending on context and experimental task demonstrated by Tversky. For this reason, similarities between members may be collateral rather than causal.^[19]

Methodology of conceptualisation

Regarding conceptualisation, the conventional approach, influenced by Giovanni Sartori, treats concepts as precise categories with defined attributes.^[20] It uses a "ladder of abstraction" to adjust a concept's generality for clear classification and analytical rigour.^[20] In contrast, interpretive approaches view concepts as fluid products of language and social context. These methods analyse how language and a researcher's own positionality shape conceptual meaning in practice.^[21]

Methodological debates in the social sciences have been addressing how researchers should refine concepts that are misaligned with empirical reality. Emerging methodologies tried to bridge the above-mentioned traditions. For instance, Knott and Alejandro developed a structured four-step process to guide researchers through reconceptualisation when an existing concept is misaligned with their observations.^[21] Their approach integrates the conventional need for clarity with a reflexive attention to context to give concepts greater analytical leverage.^[22] Specifically, the process involves mapping the attributes of the original concept against the nuances of the empirical case to pinpoint misalignments and systematically build a revised concept.

Ideasthesia

According to the theory of ideasthesia (or "sensing concepts"), activation of a concept may be the main mechanism responsible for the creation of phenomenal experiences. Therefore, understanding how the brain processes concepts may be central to solving the mystery of how conscious experiences (or qualia) emerge within a physical system e.g., the sourness of the sour taste of lemon.^[23] This question is also known as the hard problem of consciousness.^[24]^[25] Research on ideasthesia emerged from research on synesthesia where it was noted that a synesthetic experience requires first an activation of a concept of the inducer.^[26] Later research expanded these results into everyday perception.^[27]

There is a lot of discussion on the most effective theory in concepts. Another theory is semantic pointers, which use perceptual and motor representations and these representations are like symbols.^[28]

Etymology

The term "concept" is traced back to 1554–60 (Latin conceptum – "something conceived").^[29]

References

^ Goguen, Joseph (2005). "What is a Concept?". Conceptual Structures: Common Semantics for Sharing Knowledge. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 3596. pp. 52–77. doi:10.1007/11524564_4. ISBN 978-3-540-27783-5.
^ Chapter 1 of Laurence and Margolis' book called Concepts: Core Readings. ISBN 9780262631938
^ Carey, S. (1991). Knowledge Acquisition: Enrichment or Conceptual Change? In S. Carey and R. Gelman (Eds.), The Epigenesis of Mind: Essays on Biology and Cognition (pp. 257–291). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
^ "Cognitive Science | Brain and Cognitive Sciences". Archived from the original on 2025-08-14. Retrieved 2025-08-14.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Eric Margolis; Stephen Lawrence. "Concepts". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab at Stanford University. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
^ Eysenck. M. W., (2012) Fundamentals of Cognition (2nd) Psychology Taylor & Francis.
^ Joseph Goguen ""The logic of inexact concepts", Synthese 19 (3/4): 325–373 (1969).
^ ^a ^b ^c Margolis, Eric; Laurence, Stephen (2007). "The Ontology of Concepts—Abstract Objects or Mental Representations?". No?s. 41 (4): 561–593. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.188.9995. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0068.2007.00663.x.
^ Jerry Fodor, Concepts: Where Cognitive Science Went Wrong
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Carey, Susan (2009). The Origin of Concepts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-536763-8.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q Murphy, Gregory (2002). The Big Book of Concepts. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. ISBN 978-0-262-13409-5.
^ McCarthy, Gabby (2018) "Introduction to Metaphysics". pg. 35
^ Eysenck. M. W., (2012) Fundamentals of Cognition (2nd) Psychology Taylor & Francis
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ Stephen Lawrence; Eric Margolis (1999). Concepts and Cognitive Science. in Concepts: Core Readings: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. pp. 3–83. ISBN 978-0-262-13353-1.
^ 'Godel's Rationalism', Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
^ Hampton, J.A. (1979). "Polymorphous concepts in semantic memory". Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior. 18 (4): 441–461. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(79)90246-9.
^ ^a ^b Brown, Roger (1978). A New Paradigm of Reference. Academic Press Inc. pp. 159–166. ISBN 978-0-12-497750-1.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f TAYLOR, John R. (1989). Linguistic Categorization: Prototypes In Linguistic Theory.
^ Murphy, Gregory L.; Medin, Douglas L. (1985). "The role of theories in conceptual coherence". Psychological Review. 92 (3): 289–316. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.92.3.289. ISSN 0033-295X. PMID 4023146.
^ ^a ^b Sartori, G. (1970). "Concept misformation in comparative politics". American Political Science Review. 64 (4): 1033–1053. doi:10.2307/1958356.
^ ^a ^b Knott, E.; Alejandro, A. (2024). "From Conceptual Misalignment to Reconceptualizing: Demonstrating the Process of Reconceptualization". Global Studies Quarterly. 4 (3): ksae077. doi:10.1093/isagsq/ksae077.
^ Alejandro, A.; Knott, E. (2022). "How to pay attention to the words we use: the reflexive review as a method for linguistic reflexivity". International Studies Review. 24 (3): viac025. doi:10.1093/isr/viac025.
^ Mroczko-W?…Sowicz, Aleksandra; Nikoli??, Danko (2014). "Semantic mechanisms may be responsible for developing synesthesia". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 8: 509. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00509. PMC 4137691. PMID 25191239.
^ Stevan Harnad (1995). Why and How We Are Not Zombies. Journal of Consciousness Studies 1: 164–167.
^ David Chalmers (1995). Facing Up to the Problem of Consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies 2 (3): 200–219.
^ Nikoli?, D. (2009) Is synaesthesia actually ideaesthesia? An inquiry into the nature of the phenomenon. Proceedings of the Third International Congress on Synaesthesia, Science & Art, Granada, Spain, April 26–29, 2009.
^ Gómez Milán, E., Iborra, O., de Córdoba, M.J., Juárez-Ramos V., Rodríguez Artacho, M.A., Rubio, J.L. (2013) The Kiki-Bouba effect: A case of personification and ideaesthesia. The Journal of Consciousness Studies. 20(1–2): pp. 84–102.
^ Blouw, Peter; Solodkin, Eugene; Thagard, Paul; Eliasmith, Chris (2016). "Concepts as Semantic Pointers: A Framework and Computational Model". Cognitive Science. 40 (5): 1128–1162. doi:10.1111/cogs.12265. PMID 26235459. S2CID 16809232.
^ "Homework Help and Textbook Solutions | bartleby". Archived from the original on 2025-08-14. Retrieved 2025-08-14.The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition.

External links

Concept at PhilPapers
Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "Concepts". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Concept at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
"Concept". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
"Theory–Theory of Concepts". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
"Classical Theory of Concepts". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Blending and Conceptual Integration
Concepts. A Critical Approach, by Andy Blunden
Conceptual Science and Mathematical Permutations
Concept Mobiles Latest concepts
v:Conceptualize: A Wikiversity Learning Project
Concept simultaneously translated in several languages and meanings
TED-Ed Lesson on ideasthesia (sensing concepts)

[1] Goguen, Joseph (2005). "What is a Concept?". Conceptual Structures: Common Semantics for Sharing Knowledge. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 3596. pp. 52–77. doi:10.1007/11524564_4. ISBN 978-3-540-27783-5.

[2] Chapter 1 of Laurence and Margolis' book called Concepts: Core Readings. ISBN 9780262631938

[3] Carey, S. (1991). Knowledge Acquisition: Enrichment or Conceptual Change? In S. Carey and R. Gelman (Eds.), The Epigenesis of Mind: Essays on Biology and Cognition (pp. 257–291). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

[4] "Cognitive Science | Brain and Cognitive Sciences". Archived from the original on 2025-08-14. Retrieved 2025-08-14.

[Stanford_Encycl-5] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Eric Margolis; Stephen Lawrence. "Concepts". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab at Stanford University. Retrieved 6 November 2012.

[6] Eysenck. M. W., (2012) Fundamentals of Cognition (2nd) Psychology Taylor & Francis.

[7] Joseph Goguen ""The logic of inexact concepts", Synthese 19 (3/4): 325–373 (1969).

[:1-8] Margolis, Eric; Laurence, Stephen (2007). "The Ontology of Concepts—Abstract Objects or Mental Representations?". No?s. 41 (4): 561–593. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.188.9995. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0068.2007.00663.x.

[9] Jerry Fodor, Concepts: Where Cognitive Science Went Wrong

[Origin_of_Concepts-10] Carey, Susan (2009). The Origin of Concepts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-536763-8.

[Big_Book-11] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q Murphy, Gregory (2002). The Big Book of Concepts. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. ISBN 978-0-262-13409-5.

[12] McCarthy, Gabby (2018) "Introduction to Metaphysics". pg. 35

[13] Eysenck. M. W., (2012) Fundamentals of Cognition (2nd) Psychology Taylor & Francis

[concepts_core_readings-14] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ Stephen Lawrence; Eric Margolis (1999). Concepts and Cognitive Science. in Concepts: Core Readings: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. pp. 3–83. ISBN 978-0-262-13353-1.

[15] 'Godel's Rationalism', Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

[16] Hampton, J.A. (1979). "Polymorphous concepts in semantic memory". Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior. 18 (4): 441–461. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(79)90246-9.

[new_paradigm-17] Brown, Roger (1978). A New Paradigm of Reference. Academic Press Inc. pp. 159–166. ISBN 978-0-12-497750-1.

[prototype_in_linguistic_theory-18] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f TAYLOR, John R. (1989). Linguistic Categorization: Prototypes In Linguistic Theory.

[19] Murphy, Gregory L.; Medin, Douglas L. (1985). "The role of theories in conceptual coherence". Psychological Review. 92 (3): 289–316. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.92.3.289. ISSN 0033-295X. PMID 4023146.

[Sartori1970-20] Sartori, G. (1970). "Concept misformation in comparative politics". American Political Science Review. 64 (4): 1033–1053. doi:10.2307/1958356.

[KnottAlejandro2024-21] Knott, E.; Alejandro, A. (2024). "From Conceptual Misalignment to Reconceptualizing: Demonstrating the Process of Reconceptualization". Global Studies Quarterly. 4 (3): ksae077. doi:10.1093/isagsq/ksae077.

[AlejandroKnott2022-22] Alejandro, A.; Knott, E. (2022). "How to pay attention to the words we use: the reflexive review as a method for linguistic reflexivity". International Studies Review. 24 (3): viac025. doi:10.1093/isr/viac025.

[MroczkoNikolic2014-23] Mroczko-W?…Sowicz, Aleksandra; Nikoli??, Danko (2014). "Semantic mechanisms may be responsible for developing synesthesia". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 8: 509. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00509. PMC 4137691. PMID 25191239.

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v t e Philosophy of language
Philosophers	Confucius Gorgias Cratylus Plato Aristotle Eubulides Diodorus Chrysippus Zhuangzi Xunzi Averroes Ibn Khaldun Hobbes Wilkins Arnauld Lancelot Leibniz Berkeley Herder von Humboldt Mauthner Ric?ur de Saussure Frege Boas Tillich Sapir Bloomfield Bergson Vygotsky Wittgenstein Russell Carnap Derrida Whorf Austin Chomsky Gadamer Kripke Ayer Anscombe Hintikka Dummett Davidson Grice Ryle Strawson Quine Putnam Lewis Searle Watzlawick
Theories	Causal theory of reference Contrast theory of meaning Contrastivism Conventionalism Cratylism Deconstruction Descriptivism Direct reference theory Dramatism Dynamic semantics Expressivism Inquisitive semantics Linguistic determinism Mediated reference theory Nominalism Non-cognitivism Phallogocentrism Relevance theory Semantic externalism Semantic holism Situation semantics Structuralism Supposition theory Symbiosism Theological noncognitivism Theory of descriptions (Definite description) Theory of language Unilalianism Verification theory
Concepts	Ambiguity Cant Class Concept Categories Family resemblance Intension Language Linguistic relativity Logical form Mental representation Metalanguage Modality (natural language) Presupposition Principle of compositionality Property Proposition Sense and reference Sentence Set Sign Speech act Statement Symbol Truth-bearer Use–mention distinction more...
Works	Cratylus (n.d.) Port-Royal Grammar (1660) De Arte Combinatoria (1666) An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language (1668) Alciphron (1732) "On Denoting" (1905) Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921) Language, Truth, and Logic (1936) Two Dogmas of Empiricism (1951) Philosophical Investigations (1953) Of Grammatology (1967) Naming and Necessity (1980) Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language (1982) Limited Inc (1988)
Related articles	Analytic philosophy Philosophy of information Philosophical logic Linguistics Pragmatics Rhetoric Scholasticism School of Names Semantics Formal semantics Semiotics
Category Task Force Discussion

v t e Philosophy of mind
Philosophers	G. E. M. Anscombe Aristotle Armstrong Thomas Aquinas J. L. Austin Alexander Bain George Berkeley Henri Bergson Ned Block Franz Brentano C. D. Broad Tyler Burge David Chalmers Patricia Churchland Paul Churchland Andy Clark Dharmakirti Donald Davidson Daniel Dennett René Descartes Fred Dretske Fodor Goldman Martin Heidegger David Hume Edmund Husserl William James Frank Cameron Jackson Immanuel Kant David Lewis (philosopher) John Locke Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Maurice Merleau-Ponty Marvin Minsky Thomas Nagel Alva No? Derek Parfit Plato Hilary Putnam Richard Rorty Gilbert Ryle John Searle Wilfrid Sellars Baruch Spinoza Alan Turing Michael Tye Vasubandhu Ludwig Wittgenstein Stephen Yablo Zhuangzi more...
Theories	Behaviorism Biological naturalism Dualism Eliminative materialism Emergent materialism Epiphenomenalism Functionalism Interactionism Na?ve realism Neurophenomenology Neutral monism New mysterianism Nondualism Occasionalism Parallelism Phenomenalism Phenomenology Physicalism Type physicalism Property dualism Representational Solipsism Substance dualism
Concepts	Abstract object Animal machine Chinese room Creativity Cognition Cognitive closure Concept Consciousness Hard problem of consciousness Hypostatic abstraction Idea Identity Intelligence Artificial Human Intentionality Introspection Intuition Language of thought Mental event Mental image Mental process Mental property Mental representation Mind Mind–body problem Pain Problem of other minds Propositional attitude Qualia Tabula rasa Understanding Zombie
Related	Metaphysics Philosophy of artificial intelligence / information / perception / self
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