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Kashmiri
????? ????? ????????????
The word "Koshur" in Perso-Arabic script (contemporary, official status), Sharada script (ancient, liturgical) and Devanagari
Native to	India and Pakistan
Region	Kashmir (Kashmir Valley and surrounding areas of Jammu and Kashmir, parts of northern Azad Kashmir)
Ethnicity	Kashmiris
Native speakers	7.1 million (2011)
Language family	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Dardic Kashmiri
Dialects	Kishtwari, Poguli
Writing system	Official: Perso-Arabic script (contemporary) Others: Devanagari (informally used by some sections within the Kashmiri Pandit community after 1990), Sharada script (ancient/liturgical)
Official status
Official language in	India Jammu and Kashmir
Language codes
ISO 639-1	ks
ISO 639-2	kas
ISO 639-3	kas
Glottolog	kash1277
Kashmiri is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

Kashmiri (English: /k???m??ri/ kash-MEER-ee), also known by its endonym Koshur (Kashmiri: ????? (Perso-Arabic, Official Script), pronounced [k???ur]), is an Indo-Aryan language of the Dardic branch spoken by around 7 million Kashmiris of the Kashmir region, primarily in the Kashmir Valley and surrounding hills of the Indian-administrated union territory of Jammu and Kashmir, over half the population of that territory. Kashmiri has split ergativity and the unusual verb-second word order.

Since 2020, it has been made an official language of Jammu and Kashmir along with Dogri, Hindi, Urdu and English. Kashmiri is also among the 22 scheduled languages of India.

Kashmiri is spoken by roughly five percent of Pakistani-administrated Azad Kashmir's population.

Geographic distribution and status

There are about 6.8 million speakers of Kashmiri and related dialects in Jammu and Kashmir and amongst the Kashmiri diaspora in other states of India. Most Kashmiri speakers are located in the Kashmir Valley and other surrounding areas of Jammu and Kashmir. In the Kashmir Valley, Kashmiri speakers form the majority.

Kashmiri is spoken by roughly five percent of Azad Kashmir's population. According to the 1998 Pakistan Census, there were 132,450 Kashmiri speakers in Azad Kashmir. Native speakers of the language were dispersed in "pockets" throughout Azad Kashmir, particularly in the districts of Muzaffarabad (15%), Neelam (20%) and Hattian (15%), with very small minorities in Haveli (5%) and Bagh (2%). The Kashmiri spoken in Muzaffarabad is distinct from, although still intelligible with, the Kashmiri of the Neelam Valley to the north. In Neelam Valley, Kashmiri is the second most widely spoken language and the majority language in at least a dozen or so villages, where in about half of these, it is the sole mother tongue. The Kashmiri dialect of Neelum is closer to the variety spoken in northern Kashmir Valley, particularly Kupwara. At the 2017 Census of Pakistan, as many as 350,000 people declared their first language to be Kashmiri.

A process of language shift is observable among Kashmiri-speakers in Azad Kashmir according to linguist Tariq Rahman, as they gradually adopt local dialects such as Pahari-Pothwari, Hindko or move towards the lingua franca Urdu. This has resulted in these languages gaining ground at the expense of Kashmiri. There have been calls for the promotion of Kashmiri at an official level; in 1983, a Kashmiri Language Committee was set up by the government to patronise Kashmiri and impart it in school-level education. However, the limited attempts at introducing the language have not been successful, and it is Urdu, rather than Kashmiri, that Kashmiri Muslims of Azad Kashmir have seen as their identity symbol. Rahman notes that efforts to organise a Kashmiri language movement have been challenged by the scattered nature of the Kashmiri-speaking community in Azad Kashmir.

The Kashmiri language is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. It was a part of the Eighth Schedule in the former constitution of Jammu and Kashmir. Along with other regional languages mentioned in the Sixth Schedule, as well as Hindi and Urdu, the Kashmiri language was to be developed in the state. After Hindi, Kashmiri is the second fastest growing language of India, followed by Meitei (Manipuri) as well as Gujarati in the third place, and Bengali in the fourth place, according to the 2011 census of India.

Persian began to be used as the court language in Kashmir during the 14th centuries, under the influence of Islam. It was replaced by Urdu in 1889 during the Dogra rule. In 2020, Kashmiri became an official language in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir for the first time.

Poguli and Kishtwari are closely related to Kashmiri, which are spoken in the mountains to the south of the Kashmir Valley and have sometimes been counted as dialects of Kashmiri.

Phonology

Kashmiri has a very large phoneme inventory: 32 vowels and 62 consonants, giving that vowel nasalization and consonant palatalization are phonemic and not phonetic. It has the following phonemes.

Vowels

The oral vowels are as follows:

	Front	Central	Back
High	i i?	? ??	u u?
Mid	e e?	? ??	o o?
Low		a a?	? ??

The short high vowels are near-high, and the low vowels apart from /a?/ are near-low.

Nasalization is phonemic. All sixteen oral vowels have nasal counterparts.

Consonants

		Bilabial	Dental	Alveolar	Retroflex	Post-alv./ palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		m	n
Stop/ affricate	voiceless	p	t	t?s	?	t??	k
	aspirated	p?	t?	t?s?	??	t???	k?
	voiced	b	d		?	d??	ɡ
Fricative	voiceless			s		?		h
	voiced			z
Approximant		?	l			j
Trill			r

Palatalization is phonemic. All consonants apart from those in the post-alveolar/palatal column have palatalized counterparts.

Archaisms

Kashmiri, as also the other Dardic languages, shows important divergences from the Indo-Aryan mainstream. One is the partial maintenance of the three sibilant consonants s ? ? of the Old Indo-Aryan period. For another example, the prefixing form of the number 'two', which is found in Sanskrit as dvi-, has developed into ba-/bi- in most other Indo-Aryan languages, but du- in Kashmiri (preserving the original dental stop d). Seventy-two is dusatath in Kashmiri, bahattar in Hindi-Urdu and Punjabi, and dvisaptati in Sanskrit.

Certain features in Kashmiri even appear to stem from Indo-Aryan even predating the Vedic period. For instance, there was an /s/ > /h/ consonant shift in some words that had already occurred with Vedic Sanskrit (This tendency was complete in the Iranian branch of Indo-Iranian), yet is lacking in Kashmiri equivalents. The word rahit in Vedic Sanskrit and modern Hindi (meaning 'excluding' or 'without') corresponds to rost in Kashmiri. Similarly, sahit (meaning 'including' or 'with') corresponds to sost in Kashmiri.

Writing system

There are three orthographical systems used to write the Kashmiri language: the Perso-Arabic script, the Devanagari script and the Sharada script. The Roman script is also sometimes informally used to write Kashmiri, especially online.

The Kashmiri language was traditionally written in the Sharada script from the 8th Century AD onwards. Between the 8th and the first quarter of the 20th century AD, Sharada was the primary script of inscriptional and literary production in Kashmir for Sanskrit and Kashmiri. With increased use of Persian script for writing Kashmiri in the 19th century AD, and the growth of other brahmic scripts such as Devanagari and Takri, the use of Sharada declined. The Sharada script is inadequate for writing modern Kashmiri because it lacks sufficient signs to represent Kashmiri vowels. Modern usage of Sharada is limited to religious ceremonies and rituals of Kashmiri Pandits, and for horoscope-writing by them.

Today Kashmiri is primarily written in Perso-Arabic (with some modifications, such as additions of new signs to represent Kashmiri vowels). Among languages written in the Perso-Arabic script, Kashmiri is one of the scripts that regularly indicates all vowel sounds.

The Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script is recognized as the official script of Kashmiri language by the Jammu and Kashmir government and the Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages. The Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script has been derived from Persian alphabet. The consonant inventory and their corresponding pronunciations of Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script doesn't differ from Perso-Arabic script, with the exception of the letter ?, which is pronounced as /t?s/ instead of /?/. However, the vowel inventory of Kashmiri is significantly larger than other Perso-Arabic derived or influenced South Asian Perso-Arabic scripts. There are 17 vowels in Kashmiri, shown with diacritics, letters (alif, waw, ye), or both. In Kashmiri, the convention is that most vowel diacritics are written at all times.

Despite Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script cutting across religious boundaries and being used by both the Kashmiri Hindus and the Kashmiri Muslims, some attempts have been made to give a religious outlook regarding the script and make Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script to be associated with Kashmiri Muslims, while the Kashmiri Devanagari script to be associated with some sections of Kashmiri Hindu community.

Perso-Arabic script

Consonants

Name	Forms				IPA	Transliteration	Unicode	Example
Kashmiri	Isolated	Final	Medial	Initial				Kashmiri word	IPA	Meaning
???? ?lif	?	??	??	?	/?/, silent	–	U+0627	???????? afsānü	/afsa?n?/	Short story
?? bē	?	??	???	??	/b/	b	U+0628	??????? bikh??r'	/bik???r?/	Beggar
?? pē	?	??	???	??	/p/	p	U+067E	?????? pampōsh	/pampo??/	Lotus flower
??? pha	??	???	????	???	/p?/	ph	U+067E and U+06BE	???? phal	/p?al/	Fruit
?? tē	?	??	???	??	/t?/	t	U+062A	??????? tajvīz	/t?ad???i?z/	Proposal
??? tha	??	???	????	???	/t??/	th	U+062A and U+06BE	????? th??l'	/t????l?/	Plate
?? ?ē	?	??	???	??	/?/	?	U+0679	????? ?ūp'	/?u?p?/	Cap
??? ?ha	??	???	????	???	/??/	?h	U+0679 and U+06BE	????? ?hūl	/??u?l/	Egg
?? sē	?	??	???	??	/s/	s	U+062B	??????? sobūth	/sobu?t??/	Proof
???? jīm	?	??	???	??	/d??/	j	U+062C	??? jāy	/d??a?j/	Place
???? chīm	?	??	???	??	/t??/	ch, ?	U+0686	?????? ch??n?d'	/t?????d??/	Silver
??? chha	??	???	????	???	/t???/	chh, ?h	U+0686 and U+06BE	???? chhān	/t???a?n/	Carpenter
??? hay	?	??	???	??	/h/	h	U+062D	?????? ?ājath	/ha?d??at??/	Need
??? khay	?	??	???	??	/x/~/k?/	kh	U+062E	????????? khatarnākh	/xatarna?k?/	Dangerous
??? dāl	?	??	??	?	/d?/	d	U+062F	????? dukān	/d?uka?n/	Shop
??? ?āl	?	??	??	?	/?/	?	U+0688	??? ???	/???/	One and a half
??? zāl	?	??	??	?	/z/	z	U+0630	?????? zehan	/zehan/	Mind
?? rē	?	??	??	?	/r/	r	U+0631	???? rükh ??????? khr?kh	/r?k?/ /k?r?k?/	Line Snore
?? ?ē	?	??	??	?	/?/	?	U+0691	?????? l??kü	/l??k?/	Boy
?? zē	?	??	??	?	/z/	z	U+0632	????? zāman	/za?man/	Yawn
?? tsē	?	??	??	?	/t?s/	ts	U+0698	??? ts?r	/t?s?r/	House sparrow
??? tsha	??	???	????	???	/t?s?/	tsh	U+0698 and U+06BE	???? tshāy	/t?s?a?j/	Shadow
???? sīn	?	??	???	??	/s/	s	U+0633	??????? sangur	/s?ɡur/	Mountain
?????? shīn	?	??	???	??	/?/	sh, ?	U+0634	??? shod	/?od?/	Pure, Genuine
???? s??d	?	??	???	??	/s/	s	U+0635	?????? sadqü	/sad?q?/	Charity
???? z??d	?	??	???	??	/z/	z	U+0636	?????? z??mīn	/z??mi?n/	Responsible, guarantor
??? t?y	?	??	???	??	/t?/	t	U+0637	????? tōtü	/t?o?t??/	Parrot
??? z?y	?	??	???	??	/z/	z	U+0638	????? z??lim	/z??lim/	Cruel
??? ??n	?	??	???	??	/?/, silent	–	U+0639	????? aqül	/aq?l/	Wisdom
??? g??n	?	??	???	??	/?/~/ɡ/	g, ?	U+063A	????? g?sü	/??s?/	Anger
?? fē	?	??	???	??	/f/~/p?/	f	U+0641	??????? firin'	/firin?/	Sweet pudding
??? qāf	?	??	???	??	/q/~/k/	q	U+0642	????? qāshwü	/qa??w?/	Spoon
???? kīf	?	??	???	??	/k/	k	U+0643	????? k?kur	/k?kur/	Chicken
??? kha	??	???	????	???	/k?/	kh	U+0643 and U+06BE	???? kh?r	/k??r/	Foot
??? gāf	?	??	???	??	/ɡ/	g	U+06AF	??? gāsh	/ɡa??/	Light
??? lām	?	??	???	??	/l/	l	U+0644	?????? l?kchār	/l?kt??a?r/	Childhood
???? mim	?	??	???	??	/m/	m	U+0645	????? marüg	/mar?ɡ/	Meadow
???? nūn	?	??	???	??	/n/, /??/	n	U+0646	??? nab	/nab/	Sky
???? ????? nūn g?na	?	??			/??/	?	U+06BA	??? ?????? dā? z?mīn	/d??? z?mi?n/	Paddy field
??? wāw	?	??	??	?	/?/	v, w	U+0648	??? van	/?an/	Forest
?? hē	?	??	???	??	/h/	h	U+06C1	????? h?pü ????? w?hmü ????? pagāh	/h?p?/ /??hm?/ /paɡa?h/	Chubby Fear, anxiety Tomorrow
?? yē	?	-	???	??	/j/	y	U+06CC	??? yāl ??????? pyālü	/ja?l/ /p?a?l?/	Hair of horse Cup
????? ?? L?ku? yē
??? ?? bo? yē	?	??	-	-	/j/	y	U+06D2	??? ?āy	/?a?j/	Two and a half
?????? tālür'	?	??	??	-	/??/	', ?	U+0620	???? sǖt'	/s??t??/	With

Vowels

Name	Final vowel glyph (vowel and letters bē ? and rē ?)	Medial vowel glyph (vowel and letters bē ? and rē ?)	Initial vowel glyph	IPA	Transliteration	Unicode	Example
Kashmiri							Kashmiri word	IPA	Meaning
????? zabar	?? ?? ??? / ???? / ??	–? ??? / ???? / ??	??	[a]	a	U+064E	????? apuz ????? palav	/apuz/ /pala?/	Lie Garments, clothes
??? mad	? ?? / ??? / ??	? ?? / ??? / ??	?	[a?]	ā	U+0622 U+0627	?? āb ??? pān	/a?b/ /pa?n/	Lie Body
??????? amālü	–? / ??? ??? / ???? / ??	–? ??? / ???? / ??	?	[?]	?, ?, ?	U+0623 U+0654	??? ?chh ??? g?r	/?t???/ /ɡ?r/	Eye Clock, watch
??????? ??? amālü mad	? ?? / ??? / ??	? ?? / ??? / ??	?	[??]	??, ?, ?	U+0672	?? ??s ??? d??n	/??s/ /d???n/	Mouth Pomegranate
??? zēr	–? / ??? ??? / ???? / ??	–? ??? / ???? / ??	??	[i]	i, í	U+0650	?????? insān ??? sir	/insa?n/ /sir/	Human being Secret
????? ??? kashi zēr	? ?? / ??? / ??	???? / ??? ???? / ????? / ????	???? / ??	[i?]	ī	Initial and Medial: U+06CC and U+0656 Final: U+06CC	?????? īmān ???? sīr ????? wardī	/i?ma?n/ /si?r/ /?ard?i?/	Faith Brick Uniform
????? sāyi	–? / ??? ??? / ???? / ??	–? ??? / ???? / ??	?	[?]	ü, ?, u', ι	Initial: U+0625 Medial and Final: U+0655	??? bü ????? k?dül	/b?/ /k?d??l/	I Bridge
????? ??? sāyi mad	–? / ??? ??? / ???? / ??	–? ??? / ???? / ??	?	[??]	ǖ, ??, ū'	Initial: U+0673 Medial and Final: U+065F	??? tǖr ????? khǖmü	/t???r/ /x??m?/	Cold Tent
??? pēsh	–? / ??? ??? / ???? / ??	–? ??? / ???? / ??	??	[u]	u	U+064F	??? puj	/pud??/	Butcher
????? ????? kashi wāwuk	??? / ?? ??? / ???? / ???	??? / ?? ??? / ???? / ???	???	[u?]	ū	U+0648 and U+0657	????? pūt	/pu?t?/	Chick
?????? ????? nīmü wāwuk	?? / ? ?? / ??? / ??	?? / ? ?? / ??? / ??	??	[o]	o, ó	U+06C6	??? dob	/d?ob/	Washerman
????? wāwuk	?? / ? ?? / ??? / ??	?? / ? ?? / ??? / ??	??	[o?]	ō	U+0648	???? mōr	/mo?r/	Peacock
???? ????? l??' wāwuk	?? / ? ?? / ??? / ??	?? / ? ?? / ??? / ??	??	[?]	?, ?	U+06C4	????? g?lāb	/ɡ?la?b/	Rose
???? ????? ??? l??' wāwuk mad	??? / ?? ??? / ???? / ???	??? / ?? ??? / ???? / ???	???	[??]	??, ?a	U+06C4 and U+0627	???? s??d	/s??d?/	One and a quarter
?????? ????? nīmü yāyuk	??? / ??? ??? / ???? / ???	??? / ?? ???? / ????? / ????	???? / ???	[e]	e, ?	Initial and Medial: U+06CC and U+065A Final: U+06D2 and U+065A	?????? beni ???? me	/beni/ /me/	Sister Me, I
????? yāyuk	?? / ? ?? / ??? / ??	??? / ?? ??? / ???? / ???	??? / ??	[e?]	ē	Initial and Medial: U+06CC Final: U+06D2	??? rēsh	/re??/	Beard
??? ????? gōl yāyuk	-	??? / ?? ??? / ???? / ???	??? / ???	[?a]	?, ya	Initial and Medial: U+0620	?????? m?qrāz	/m?aqra?z/	Scissors

Devanagari

Consonants

Letter	?	?	?	?	?	?	??	??	??	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
IPA	[k]	[k?]	[g]	[t??]	[t???]	[d??]	[t?s]	[t?s?]	[z]	[?]	[??]	[?]	[t]	[t?]	[d]	[n]	[p]	[p?]	[b]	[m]	[j]	[r]	[l]	[?]	[?]	[s]	[h]
Transliteration	k	kh	g	ch	chh	j	ts	tsh	z	?	?h	?	t	th	d	n	p	ph	b	m	y	r	l	w	sh	s	h

Vowels

There have been a few versions of the Devanagari script for Kashmiri. The 2002 version of the proposal is shown below. This version has readers and more content available on the Internet, even though this is an older proposal. This version makes use of the vowels ?/? and vowel signs ??/?? for the schwa-like vowel [?] and elongated schwa-like vowel [??] that also exist in other Devanagari-based scripts such as Marathi and Hindi but are used for the sound of other vowels.

Letter	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	-?	?
IPA	[a]	[a?]	[?]	[??]	[i]	[i?]	[?]	[??]	[u]	[u?]	[e]	[e?]	[?i]	[o]	[o?]	[??]	[?]	[??]
Transliteration	a	ā	?	??	i	ī	ü	ǖ	u	ū	e	ē	ai	o	ō	??	?	?
Vowel mark indicated on consonant k	?	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??? or ??	??

Tabulated below is the latest (2009) version of the proposal to spell the Kashmiri vowels with Devanagari. The primary change in this version is the changed stand alone characters ? / ? and vowel signs ?? / ?? for the schwa-like vowel [?] & elongated schwa-like vowel [??] and a new stand alone vowel ? and vowel sign ?? for the open-mid back rounded vowel [?] which can be used instead of the consonant ? standing-in for this vowel.

Letter	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
IPA	[a]	[a?]	[?]	[??]	[i]	[i?]	[?]	[??]	[u]	[u?]	[e]	[e?]	[?i]	[o]	[o?]	[??]	[?]	[??]
Transliteration	a	ā	?	??	i	ī	ü	ǖ	u	ū	e	ē	ai	o	ō	??	?	?
Vowel mark indicated on consonant k	?	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??

Sharada script

Consonants

Name		Transliteration	IPA	Isolated glyph	Remarks
???????? ??	kōv k?	ka	[ka]	??
?????????? ??	khvani kh?	kha	[k?a]	??
???????? ??	gagar g?	ga	[ɡa]	??
???????? ??	gāsi gh?	gha	[ɡ?a]	??	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
???????????? ??	nārug ??	?a	[?a]	??	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
???????????? ??	tsā?uv ch?	cha	[t??a]	??
?????????????? ??	tshva?i? chh?	chha	[t???a]	??
?????? ??	zayi j?	ja	[d??a]	??
???????????? ??	zashi? jh?	jha	[d???a]	??	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
???????? ???????? ??	khvana phu?i ??	?a	[?a]	??	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
??????-????????	ar mām??a	?a	[?a]	??
??????-????????	sar mām??ha	?ha	[??a]	??
???????? ??	?u? ??	?a	[?a]	??
???? ??	?aka ?h?	?ha	[??a]	??	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
?????????????? ??	nānaguri ??	?a	[?a]	??	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
???????? ??	tov t?	ta	[ta]	??
???????? ??	thāshi th?	tha	[t?a]	??
???????? ??	dadav d?	da	[da]	??
???????? ??	dū? dh?	dha	[d?a]	??	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
?????????????? ??	nastūv n?	na	[na]	??
?????????? ??	pa?uri p?	pa	[pa]	??
?????????? ??	phari? ph?	pha	[p?a]	??
???????? ??	bub b?	ba	[ba]	??
???????? ??	bāyi bh?	bha	[b?a]	??	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
???????? ??	mōv m?	ma	[ma]	??
?????? ??	yāva y?	ya	[ja]	??
???? ??	raka r?	ra	[ra]	??
?????? ??	lāva l?	la	[la]	??
?????? ???????? ??	bo?u ?u? ??	?a	[?a]	??	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
?????? ??	vashi v?	va	[?a]	??
???????? ??	shakar sh?	sha	[?a]	??
???????? ??	phāri ??	?a	[?a]	??	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
???????? ??	sus s?	sa	[sa]	??
?????? ??	hala h?	ha	[ha]	??

Vowels

Name		Transliteration	IPA	Isolated glyph	Remarks
?????? ??	ādau a	a	[a]	??
???????? ??	aitav ā	ā	[a?]	??
???????? ????	yeyev yē	i	[i]	??
?????????? ??	yisherav yī	ī	[i?]	??
???????????? ????	v?pal vō	u	[u]	??
???????????? ???? ??	v?pal bā ū	ū	[u?]	??
???????? ??	r?enav	r?	[r?]	??	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this vowel.
???????? ??	rakhav	r??	[r??]	??	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this vowel.
???????????? ??	leyev	l?	[l?]	??	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this vowel.
?????????? ??	līsav	l??	[l??]	??	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this vowel.
???????????? ??	talavya yē	ē	[e?]	??
???????? ??	tolī ai	ai	[?i]	??
???????? ??	vu?hō ō	ō	[o?]	??
?????????? ??	ashidī au	au	[??]	??
?????? ?????????? ??????????	a?i tsandra phyor	am?	[??]	????
?????? ?????????? ????	mas phyori a?	a?	[n], [m]	????
???? ?????????? ????	dō phyori a?	a?	[h]	????

Vowel mark

Name		Transliteration	IPA	Isolated vowel mark	Vowel mark indicated on consonant pa	Distinct ways of indicating vowel marks on special consonants
??????????	vahāy	-ā	[a?]	??	????	?? = ???? ?? = ???? ?? = ???? ?? = ????
??????????????	mūnthar	-i	[i]	??	????
?????? ??????????????	ar mūnthar	-ī	[i?]	??	????
????????	khuru	-u	[u]	??	????	?? = ???? ?? = ???? ?? = ???? ?? = ???? ?? = ???? ?? = ???? ?? = ???? ?? = ???? ?? = ????
?????? ????????	ar khūrū	-ū	[u?]	??	????	?? = ???? ?? = ???? ?? = ???? ?? = ???? ?? = ???? ?? = ???? ?? = ???? ?? = ???? ?? = ????
???????? ??	r?enav r?a	-r?	[r?]	??	????	?? = ????
???????? ??	rakhav ru	-r??	[r??]	??	????	?? = ????
???????????? ??	leyev l?a	-l?	[l?]	??	????
?????????? ??	līsav l??a	-l??	[l??]	??	????
????????????	hvan?ū	-ē	[e?]	??	????
????????????????	hvanjōr	-ai	[?i]	??	????
?????? ????????????	oku shyūr	-ō	[o?]	??	????
?????????? ??????????	okushi vahāy	-au	[??]	??	????
?????? ???????????? ??????????	a?i tsandra phyor	-am?	[??]	??	????
?????? ?????????? ????	mas phyori a?	-a?	[n], [m]	??	????
???? ?????????? ????	dō phyori a?	-a?	[h]	??	????

Grammar

Kashmiri is a fusional language with verb-second (V2) word order Several of Kashmiri's grammatical features distinguish it from other Indo-Aryan languages.

Nouns

Kashmiri nouns are inflected according to gender, number and case. There are no articles, nor is there any grammatical distinction for definiteness, although there is some optional adverbial marking for indefinite or "generic" noun qualities.

Gender

The Kashmiri gender system is divided into masculine and feminine. Feminine forms are typically generated by the addition of a suffix (or in most cases, a morphophonemic change, or both) to a masculine noun. A relatively small group of feminine nouns have unique suppletion forms that are totally different from the corresponding masculine forms. The following table illustrates the range of possible gender forms:

Process	Masculine	Feminine	Meaning
-en’ suffix	[d?uka?nd?a?r] ????????	[d?uka?nd?a?ren?] ????????????	shopkeeper
-bāy suffix	[ma???ar] ??????	[ma???arba?j] ?????? ???	teacher
-in’ + vowel change	[xar] ???	[x?rin?] ??????	donkey
-ür + vowel change	[p?ot?] ????	[p??t??r] ??????	basket
Adding of affix	[hu?n] ????	[hu?n?] ?????	dog/bitch
vowel change	[ɡaɡur] ?????	[ɡaɡ?r] ?????	rat
consonant change	[hok?] ????	[hot???] ????	dry
vowel/consonant change	[t?ot?] ???	[t??t?s] ???	hot
suppletive form	[mar?d?] ?????	[zana?n?] ???????	man/woman
masculine only	[nu?l] ????	---	mongoose
feminine only	---	[m?t???] ????	housefly

Some nouns borrowed from other languages, such as Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, Urdu or English, follow a slightly different gender system. Notably, many words borrowed from Urdu have different genders in Kashmiri.

Case

There are five cases in Kashmiri: nominative, dative, ergative, ablative and vocative. Case is expressed via suffixation of the noun.

Kashmiri utilizes an ergative-absolutive case structure when the verb is in simple past tense. Thus, in these sentences, the subject of a transitive verb is marked in the ergative case and the object in nominative, which is identical to how the subject of an intransitive verb is marked. However, in sentences constructed in any other tense, or in past tense sentences with intransitive verbs, a nominative-dative paradigm is adopted, with objects (whether direct or indirect) generally marked in dative case. Other case distinctions, such as locative, instrumental, genitive, comitative and allative, are marked by postpositions rather than suffixation.

Noun morphology

The following table illustrates Kashmiri noun declension according to gender, number and case.

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
Nom.	-?	-?	-?	-?
Erg.	-[an] ???	-[a?] ???	-[i] ??	-[a?] ???
Dat.	-[as] or -[is] ??? or ???	-[an] ???	-[i] ??	-[an] ???
Abl.	-[i] or -[?] ?? or ?	-[a?] ???	-[i] ??	-[a?] ???
Voc.	-[a?] ?	-[a?] ???	-[ij] ???	-[a?] ???

Verbs

Kashmiri verbs are declined according to tense and person, and to a lesser extent, gender. Tense, along with certain distinctions of aspect, is formed by the addition of suffixes to the verb stem (minus the infinitive ending - /un/), and in many cases by the addition of various modal auxiliaries. Postpositions fulfill numerous adverbial and semantic roles.

Tense

Present tense in Kashmiri is an auxiliary construction formed by a combination of the copula and the imperfective suffix -/a?n/ added to the verb stem. The various copula forms agree with their subject according to gender and number, and are provided below with the verb /jun/ (to come):

Present

	Masculine	Feminine
1st person sing.	[t???us ji?a?n] ???? ?????	[t???as ji?a?n] ???? ?????
2nd person sing.	[t???uk? ji?a?n] ????? ?????	[t???ak? ji?a?n] ????? ?????
3rd person sing.	[t???u ji?a?n] ??? ?????	[t???e ji?a?n] ???? ?????
1st person pl.	[t???i ji?a?n] ??? ?????	[t???a ji?a?n] ??? ?????
2nd person pl.	[t???i? ji?a?n] ???? ?????	[t???a? ji?a?n] ???? ?????
3rd person pl.	[t???i ji?a?n] ??? ?????	[t???e ji?a?n] ???? ?????

Past tense in Kashmiri is significantly more complex than the other tenses, and is subdivided into three past tense distinctions. The simple (sometimes called proximate) past refers to completed past actions. Remote past refers to actions that lack this in-built perfective aspect. Indefinite past refers to actions performed a long time ago, and is often used in historical narrative or storytelling contexts.

As described above, Kashmiri is a split-ergative language; in all three of these past tense forms, the subjects of transitive verbs are marked in the ergative case and direct objects in the nominative. Intransitive subjects are marked in the nominative. Nominative arguments, whether subjects or objects, dictate gender, number and person marking on the verb.

Verbs of the simple past tense are formed via the addition of a suffix to the verb stem, which usually undergoes certain uniform morphophonemic changes. First and third person verbs of this type do not take suffixes and agree with the nominative object in gender and number, but there are second person verb endings. The entire simple past tense paradigm of transitive verbs is illustrated below using the verb /parun/ ("to read"):

Simple past (transitive)

		Masculine		Feminine
		singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person		[por] ???	[p?r?] ????	[p?r] ???	[pari] ????
2nd person	Non-honorific	[porut??] ??????	[p?rit??] ??????	[p?r?t??] ??????	[par?at??] ??????
	Honorific	[por??] ?????	[p?ri??] ??????	[p?r??] ?????	[pari??] ??????
3rd person		[por] ???	[p?r?] ????	[p?r] ???	[pari] ????

A group of irregular intransitive verbs (special intransitives), take a different set of endings in addition to the morphophonemic changes that affect most past tense verbs.

Simple past (special intransitive)

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person	-[us] ???	-[?] ?	-[as] ???	-[i] ??
2nd person	-[k?] ??	-[??] ??	-[k?] ??	-[??] ??
3rd person	-?	-?	-[t???] ??	-[i] ??

Intransitive verbs in the simple past are conjugated the same as intransitives in the indefinite past tense form.

Simple past (intransitive)

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person	-[jas] ???	-[je?ji] ?? ???	-[je?jas] ?? ???	-[je?ji] ?? ???
2nd person	-[ja?k?] ????	-[je?ji??] ?? ????	-[je?jak?] ?? ????	-[je?ji??] ?? ????
3rd person	-[jo??] ???	-[je?ji] ?? ???	-[je?ji] ?? ???	-[je?ji] ?? ???

In contrast to the simple past, verb stems are unchanged in the indefinite and remote past, although the addition of the tense suffixes does cause some morphophonetic change. Transitive verbs are declined according to the following paradigm:

Indefinite past (transitive)

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st/3rd person	-[jo??] ???	-[e?ji] ? ???	-[e?ji] ? ???	-[e?ji] ? ???
2nd person	-[jo?t??] ????	-[e?jat??] ? ????	-[e?jat??] ? ????	-[e?jat??] ? ????

Remote past (transitive)

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st/3rd person	-[e?jo??] ? ???	-[e?ja?ji] ? ?????	-[e?ja?ji] ? ?????	-[e?ja?ji] ? ?????
2nd person	-[e?jo?t??] ? ????	-[e?je?jat??] ? ?? ????	-[e?je?jat??] ? ?? ????	-[e?je?jat??] ? ?? ????

As in the simple past, "special intransitive" verbs take a different set of endings in the indefinite and remote past:

Indefinite past (special intransitive)

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person	-[a?s] ??	-[a?jas] ????	-[a?jas] ????	-[a?ji] ????
2nd person	-[k?] ??	-[k?] ??	-[a?jak?] ?????	-[a?ji??] ?????
3rd person	-[a?] ???	-[a?ji] ????	-[a?ji] ????	-[a?ji] ????

Remote past (special intransitive)

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person	-[a?ja?s] ????	-[e?ja?ji] ? ?????	-[e?je?jas] ? ?? ???	-[e?je?ji] ? ?? ???
2nd person	-[a?k?] ???	-[e?ji??] ? ????	-[a?jak?] ?????	-[a?ji??] ?????
3rd person	-[e?jo??] ? ???	-[e?je?ji] ? ?? ???	-[e?ja?j?] ? ?????	-[e?ja?j?] ? ?????

Regular intransitive verbs also take a different set of endings in the indefinite and remote past, subject to some morphophonetic variation:

Indefinite past (intransitive)

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person	-[jas] ???	-[je?ji] ?? ???	-[je?jas] ?? ???	-[je?ji] ?? ???
2nd person	-[ja?k?] ????	-[je?ji??] ?? ????	-[je?jak?] ?? ????	-[je?ji??] ?? ????
3rd person	-[jo??] ???	-[je?ji] ?? ???	-[je?ji] ?? ???	-[je?ji] ?? ???

Remote past (intransitive)

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person	-[je?ja?s] ?? ???	-[je?ji] ?? ???	-[je?ja?s] ?? ???	-[je?ji] ?? ???
2nd person	-[je?jak?] ?? ????	-[je?ji??] ?? ????	-[je?jak?] ?? ????	-[je?ji??] ?? ????
3rd person	-[je?jo??] ?? ???	-[je?ji] ?? ???	-[je?ja?j?] ?? ?????	-[je?j?] ?? ???

Future tense intransitive verbs are formed by the addition of suffixes to the verb stem:

Future (intransitive)

	Singular	Plural
1st person	-[m?] ???	-[ma?] ???
2nd person	-[ak?] ????	-[ji?] ???
3rd person	-[ji] ???	-[an] ???

The future tense of transitive verbs, however, is formed by adding suffixes that agree with both the subject and direct object according to number, in a complex fashion:

Future (transitive)

	Singular object	Plural object
1st person sing.	-[an] ???	-[ak?] ????
1st person pl.	-[?ho?n] ????	-[?ho?k?] ?????
2nd person sing.	-[?h?n] ???	-[?h?k?] ????
2nd person pl.	-[?hu?n] ?????	-[?hu?k?] ??????
3rd person sing.	-[jas] ???	-[jak?] ????
3rd person pl.	-[?nas] ????	-[?nak?] ?????

Aspect

There are two main aspectual distinctions in Kashmiri, perfective and imperfective. Both employ a participle formed by the addition of a suffix to the verb stem, as well as the fully conjugated auxiliary /a?sun/ ("to be")—which agrees according to gender, number and person with the object (for transitive verbs) or the subject (for intransitive verbs).

Like the auxiliary, the participle suffix used with the perfective aspect (expressing completed or concluded action) agrees in gender and number with the object (for transitive verbs) or subject (for intransitives) as illustrated below:

Masculine		Feminine
singular	plural	singular	plural
-[mut?] ???	-[m?t??] ????	-[m?t?s] ???	-[mat?s?] ????

The imperfective (expressing habitual or progressive action) is simpler, taking the participle suffix -/a?n/ in all forms, with only the auxiliary showing agreement. A type of iterative aspect can be expressed by reduplicating the imperfective participle.

Pronouns

Pronouns are declined according to person, gender, number and case, although only third person pronouns are overtly gendered. Also in third person, a distinction is made between three degrees of proximity, called proximate, remote I and remote II.

Nominative

		Masculine		Feminine
		singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person		[b?] ???	[?s?] ???	[b?] ???	[?s?] ???
2nd person		[t?s?] ??	[t?oh?] or [t?uh?] ???? or ????	[t?s?] ??	[t?oh?] or [t?uh?] ???? or ????
3rd person	proximate	[ji] ???	[jim] ???	[ji] ???	[jim?] ?????
	remote I	[hu] ???	[hum] ???	[h?] ??	[hum?] ?????
	remote II	[su] ???	[t?im] ???	[s?] ??	[t?im?] ?????

Ergative

		Masculine		Feminine
		singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person		[me] ???	[asi] ?????	[me] ???	[asi] ?????
2nd person		[t?se] ???	[t??hi] ?????	[t?se] ???	[t??hi] ?????
3rd person	proximate	[jem?] ?????	[jima?] ?????	[jemi] ??????	[jima?] ?????
	remote I	[hum?] ????	[huma?] ?????	[humi] ?????	[huma?] ?????
	remote II	[t??m?] ????	[t?ima?] ?????	[t?ami] ?????	[t?ima?] ?????

Dative

		Masculine		Feminine
		singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person		[me] ???	[asi] ?????	[me] ???	[asi] ?????
2nd person		[t?se] ???	[t??hi] ?????	[t?se] ???	[t??hi] ?????
3rd person	proximate	[jemis] ??????	[jiman] ?????	[jemis] ??????	[jiman] ?????
	remote I	[humis] ?????	[human] ?????	[humis] ?????	[human] ?????
	remote II	[t??mis] ?????	[t?iman] ?????	[t??mis] ?????	[t?iman] ?????

Ablative

		Masculine		Feminine
		singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person		[me] ???	[asi] ?????	[me] ???	[asi] ?????
2nd person		[t?se] ???	[t??hi] ?????	[t?se] ???	[t??hi] ?????
3rd person	proximate	[jemi] ??????	[jima?] ?????	[jemi] ??????	[jima?] ?????
	remote I	[humi] ?????	[huma?] ?????	[humi] ?????	[huma?] ?????
	remote II	[t??mi] ?????	[t?ima?] ?????	[t??mi] ?????	[t?ima?] ?????

There is also a dedicated genitive pronoun set, in contrast to the way that the genitive is constructed adverbially elsewhere. As with future tense, these forms agree with both the subject and direct object in person and number.

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st sing.	[m?o?n] ?????	[m???n?] ??????	[m???n?] ??????	[m?a?ni] ???????
1st pl.	[so?n] ???	[s??n?] ????	[s??n?] ????	[sa?ni] ?????
2nd sing.	[t??o?n] ???	[t????n?] ????	[t????n?] ????	[t??a?ni] ?????
2nd pl.	[t?uhund?] ???????	[t?uh?nd??] ????????	[t?uh?nz] ???????	[t?uh?nz?] ????????
3rd sing. prox.	[jem? sund?] ????? ?????	[jem? s?nd??] ????? ??????	[jem? s?nz] ????? ?????	[jem? s?nz?] ????? ??????
3rd pl. prox.	[jihund?] ???????	[jih?nd??] ????????	[jih?nz] ???????	[jih?nz?] ????????
3rd sing. R I	[hum? sund] ???? ?????	[hum? s?nd??] ???? ??????	[hum? s?nz] ???? ?????	[hum? s?nz?] ???? ??????
3rd pl. R I	[huhund?] ???????	[huh?nd??] ????????	[huh?nz] ???????	[huh?nz?] ????????
3rd sing. R II	[t??m? sund?] ???? ?????	[t??m? s?nd??] ???? ??????	[t??m? s?nz] ???? ?????	[t??m? s?nz?] ???? ??????
3rd pl. R II	[t?ihund?] ???????	[t?ih?nd??] ????????	[t?ih?nz] ???????	[t?ih?nz?] ????????

Adjectives

There are two kinds of adjectives in Kashmiri, those that agree with their referent noun (according to case, gender and number) and those that are not declined at all. Most adjectives are declined, and generally take the same endings and gender-specific stem changes as nouns. The declinable adjective endings are provided in the table below, using the adjective ????? [??zul] ("red"):

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
Nom.	[??zul] ?????	[??z?l?] ??????	[??z?d??] ?????	[??zd??i] ??????
Erg.	[??zl?] ??????	[??zl?a?] ??????	[??zd??i] ??????	[??zd??a?] ??????
Dat.	[??zlis] ??????	[??zl?an] ??????	[??zd??i] ??????	[??zd??an] ??????
Abl.	[??zl?] ??????	[??zl?a?] ??????	[??zd??i] ??????	[??zd??a?] ??????

Among those adjectives not declined are adjectives that end in -[lad?] or -[?], adjectives borrowed from other languages, and a few isolated irregulars.

The comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are formed with the words ??? [t?sor] ("more") and ????? [s?a??a?] ("most"), respectively.

Numerals

Within the Kashmir language, numerals are separated into cardinal numbers and ordinal numbers. These numeral forms, as well as their aggregative (both, all the five, etc.), multiplicative (two times, four times, etc.), and emphatic forms (only one, only three, etc.) are provided by the table below.

	Cardinal	Ordinal	Aggregative	Multiplicative	Emphatic
Suffix		-[jum] for masculine -[im] for feminine	-[?aj]	-[ɡun] or -[ɡon] for masculine -[ɡ?n] for feminine	-[j]
0.	[sifar] ?????
1.	[ak?] ????	[?k?um] or [?kim] ?????? or ????		[oɡun] or [oɡ?n] ????? or ?????	[akuj] ?????
2.	[z?] ??	[dojum] or [dojim] ????? or ?????	[d???aj] ??????	[doɡun] or [doɡ?n] ????? or ?????	[z?j] ???
3.	[tre] ?????	[trejum] or [trejim] ???????? or ????????	[tre??aj] ?????????	[troɡun] or [troɡ?n] ??????? or ???????	[trej] ??????
4.	[t?so?r] ???	[t?su?r?um] or [t?su?rim] ???????? or ??????	[t?s???aj] ??????	[t?soɡun] or [t?soɡ?n] ????? or ?????	[t?so?raj] ?????
5.	[p??t?s?] or [p???t?s?] ?????? or ??????	[p??:t?sjum] or [p??:t?sim] ????????? or ???????	[p??t?s??aj] ?????????	[p??t?s?ɡun] or [p??t?s?ɡ?n] ????????? or ?????????	[p??t?saj] ???????
6.	[?e] ???	[?ejum] or [?ejim] ?????? or ??????	[?en??aj] ?????? ???	[?uɡun] or [?uɡ?n] ????? or ?????	[?ej] ????
7.	[sat?] ????	[s?tjum] or [s?tim] ??????? or ?????	[sat??aj] ????? ???	[sat?ɡun] or [sat?ɡ?n] ????? ??? or ????? ???	[sataj] ?????
8.	[????] ???	[????jum] or [u???jum] ???????? or ????????? [????im] or [u???im] ?????? or ???????	[??????aj] ???? ???	[?????ɡun] or [?????ɡ?n] ???? ??? or ???? ???	[????aj] ?????
9.	[na?] ???	[n??jum] or [n??im] ??????? or ?????	[na???aj] ???????	[na??ɡun] or [na??ɡ?n] ??????? or ???????	[na?aj] ?????
10.	[d?h] or [da?h] ??? or ???	[d?hjum] or [d?him] ??????? or ?????	[d?h??aj] ????? ???	[d?h?ɡon] or [d?h?ɡ?n] ????? ??? or ????? ???	[d?haj] ?????
11.	[kah] or [ka?h] ???? or ???	[k?hjum] or [k?him] ??????? or ?????
12.	[bah] or [ba?h] ???? or ???	[b?hjum] or [b?him] ??????? or ?????
13.	[tru?a?h] ???????	[tru???hjum] or [tru???him] ??????????? or ?????????
14.	[t?s?da?h] ?????	[t?s?d??hjum] or [t?s?d??him] ????????? or ???????
15.	[panda?h] ???????	[pand??hjum] or [pand??him] ??????????? or ?????????
16.	[?ura?h] ?????	[?ur??hjum] or [?ur??him] ????????? or ???????
17.	[sada?h] ?????	[sad??hjum] or [sad??him] ????????? or ???????
18.	[ar?da?h] ???????	[ar?d??hjum] or [ar?d??him] ??????????? or ?????????
19.	[kun??uh] ????? ???	[kun??uhjum] or [kun??uhim] ????? ??????? or ????? ?????
20.	[?uh] ???	[?uhjum] or [?uhim] ??????? or ?????
21.	[ak??uh] ????? ???	[ak??uhjum] or [ak??uhim] ????? ??????? or ????? ?????
22.	[z?to??uh] ???????	[z?to??uhjum] or [z?to??uhim] ??????????? or ?????????
23.	[tro?uh] ???????	[tro?uhjum] or [tro?uhim] ??????????? or ?????????
24.	[t?so?uh] ?????	[t?so?uhjum] or [t?so?uhim] ????????? or ???????
25.	[p?nt?s?h] ???????	[p?nt?s?hjum] or [p?nt?s?him] ??????????? or ?????????
26.	[?at??uh] ????? ???	[?at??uhjum] or [?at??uhim] ????? ??????? or ????? ?????
27.	[sato??uh] ???????	[sato??uhjum] or [sato??uhim] ??????????? or ?????????
28.	[a??o??uh] ????????	[a??o??uhjum] or [a??o??uhim] ???????????? or ??????????
29.	[kun?tr?h] ????? ?????	[kun?tr?hjum] or [kun?tr?him] ????? ????????? or ????? ???????
30.	[tr?h] ?????	[tr?hjum] or [tr?him] ????????? or ???????
31.	[ak?tr?h] ????? ?????	[ak?tr?hjum] or [ak?tr?him] ????? ????????? or ????? ???????
32.	[d?jitr?h] ????? ?????	[d?jitr?hjum] or [d?jitr?hjim] ????? ????????? or ????? ???????
33.	[tejitr?h] ?????? ?????	[tejitr?hjum] or [tejitr?him] ?????? ????????? or ?????? ???????
34.	[t?s?jitr?h] ????? ?????	[t?s?jitr?hjum] or [t?s?jitr?him] ????? ????????? or ????? ???????
35.	[p???t?s?tr?h] or [p??t?s?tr?h] ?????? ????? or ?????? ?????	[p???t?s?tr?hjum] or [p??t?s?tr?hjum] ?????? ????????? or ?????? ????????? [p???t?s?tr?him] or [p??t?s?tr?him] ?????? ??????? or ?????? ???????
36.	[?ejitr?h] ?????? ?????	[?ejitr?hjum] or [?ejitr?him] ?????? ????????? or ?????? ???????
37.	[sat?tr?h] ????? ?????	[sat?tr?hjum] or [sat?tr?him] ????? ????????? or ????? ???????
38.	[ar?tr?h] ?????????	[ar?tr?hjum] or [ar?tr?him] ????????????? or ???????????
39.	[kun?t??d??ih] or [kun?t??d??i?] ????? ?????? or ????? ????	[kun?t??d??ihjum] or [kun?t??d??ihim] ????? ????????? or ????? ???????
40.	[t?satd??ih] or [t?satd??i?] ??????? or ?????	[t?satd??ihjum] or [t?satd??ihim] ?????????? or ????????
41.	[ak?t??d??ih] or [ak?t??d??i?] ????? ?????? or ????? ????	[ak?t??d??ihjum] or [ak?t??d??ihim] ????? ????????? or ????? ???????
42.	[d?jit??d??ih] or [d?jit??d??i?] ????? ?????? or ????? ????	[d?jit??d??ihjum] or [d?jit??d??ihim] ????? ????????? or ????? ???????
43.	[tejit??d??ih] or [tejit??d??i?] ?????? ?????? or ?????? ????	[tejit??d??ihjum] or [tejit??d??ihim] ?????? ????????? or ?????? ???????
44.	[t?s?jit??d??ih] or [t?s?jit??d??i?] ????? ?????? or ????? ????	[t?s?jit??d??ihjum] or [t?s?jit??d??ihim] ????? ????????? or ????? ???????
45.	[p???t?s?t??d??ih] or [p??t?s?t??d??ih] or [p???t?s?t??d??i?] or [p??t?s?t??d??i?] ?????? ?????? or ?????? ?????? or ?????? ???? or ?????? ????	[p???t?s?t??d??ihjum] or [p??t?s?t??d??ihim] ?????? ????????? or ?????? ????????? [p???t?s?t??d??ihim] or [p??t?s?t??d??ihim] ?????? ??????? or ?????? ???????
46.	[?ejit??d??ih] or [?ejit??d??i?] ?????? ?????? or ?????? ????	[?ejit??d??ihjum] or [?ejit??d??ihim] ?????? ????????? or ?????? ???????
47.	[sat?t??d??ih] or [sat?t??d??i?] ????? ?????? or ????? ????	[sat?t??d??ihjum] or [sat?t??d??ihim] ????? ????????? or ????? ???????
48.	[ar?t??d??ih] or [ar?t??d??i?] ?????????? or ????????	[ar?t??d??ihjum] or [ar?t??d??ihim] ????????????? or ???????????
49.	[kun??anza?h] ????? ???????	[kun??anz??hjum] or [kun??anz??him] ????? ??????????? or ????? ?????????
50.	[pant?sa?h] ???????	[pant?s??hjum] or [pant?s??him] ??????????? or ?????????
51.	[ak??anza?h] ????? ???????	[ak??anz??hjum] or [ak??anz??him] ????? ??????????? or ????? ?????????
52.	[du?anza?h] ?????????	[du?anz??hjum] or [du?anz??him] ????????????? or ???????????
53.	[tru?anza?h] or [tr??anza?h] ??????????? or ???????????	[tru?anz??hjum] or [tru?anz??him] ??????????????? or ????????????? [tr??anz??hjum] or [tr??anz??him] ??????????????? or ?????????????
54.	[t?su?anza?h] ?????????	[t?su?anz??hjum] or [t?su?anz??him] ????????????? or ???????????
55.	[p???t?s??anza?h] or [p??t?s??anza?h] ?????? ??????? or ?????? ???????	[p???t?s??anz??hjum] or [p??t?s??anz??hjum] ?????? ??????????? or ?????? ??????????? [p???t?s??anz??him] or [p??t?s??anz??him] ?????? ????????? or ?????? ?????????
56.	[?u?anza?h] ?????????	[?u?anz??hjum] or [?u?anz??him] ????????????? or ???????????
57.	[sat??anza?h] ????? ???????	[sat??anz??hjum] or [sat??anz??him] ????? ??????????? or ????? ?????????
58.	[ar??anza?h] ???????????	[ar??anz??hjum] or [ar??anz??him] ??????????????? or ?????????????
59.	[kun?h????] ????? ????	[kun?h????jum] or [kun?h????im] ????? ???????? or ????? ??????
60.	[?e???] ????	[?e???jum] or [?e???im] ???????? or ??????
61.	[ak?h????] ????? ????	[ak?h????jum] or [ak?h????im] ????? ???????? or ????? ??????
62.	[duh????] ?? ????	[duh????jum] or [duh????im] ?? ???????? or ?? ??????
63.	[truh????] or [tr?h????] ???????? or ????????	[truh????jum] or [truh????im] ???????????? or ?????????? [tr?h????jum] or [tr?h????im] ???????????? or ??????????
64.	[t?suh????] ??????	[t?suh????jum] or [t?suh????im] ?????????? or ????????
65.	[p???t?s?h????] or [p??t?s?h????] ?????? ???? or ?????? ????	[p???t?s?h????jum] or [p??t?s?h????jum] ?????? ???????? or ?????? ???????? [p???t?s?h????im] or [p??t?s?h????im] ?????? ?????? or ?????? ??????
66.	[?uh????] ??????	[?uh????jum] or [?uh????im] ?????????? or ????????
67.	[sat?h????] ????? ????	[sat?h????jum] or [sat?h????im] ????? ???????? or ????? ??????
68.	[ar?h????] ????????	[ar?h????jum] or [ar?h????im] ???????????? or ??????????
69.	[kun?satat?] ????? ??????	[kun?satatyum] or [kun?satatim] ????? ????????? or ????? ???????
70.	[satat?] ??????	[satatjum] or [satatim] ????????? or ???????
71.	[ak?satat?] ????? ??????	[ak?satatjum] or [ak?satatim] ????? ????????? or ????? ???????
72.	[dusatat?] ????????	[dusatatjum] or [dusatatim] ??????????? or ?????????
73.	[trusatat?] or [tr?satat?] ?????????? or ??????????	[trusatatjum] or [trusatatim] ????????????? or ??????????? [tr?satatjum] or [tr?satatim] ????????????? or ???????????
74.	[t?susatat?] ????????	[t?susatatjum] or [t?susatatim] ??????????? or ?????????
75.	[p???t?s?satat?] or [p??t?s?satat?] ?????? ?????? or ?????? ??????	[p???t?s?satatjum] or [p??t?s?satatjum] ?????? ????????? or ?????? ????????? [p???t?s?satatim] or [p??t?s?satatim] ?????? ??????? or ?????? ???????
76.	[?usatat?] ????????	[?usatatjum] or [?usatatim] ??????????? or ?????????
77.	[sat?satat?] ????? ??????	[sat?satatjum] or [sat?satatim] ????? ????????? or ????? ???????
78.	[ar?satat?] ??????????	[ar?satatjum] or [ar?satatim] ????????????? or ???????????
79.	[kun??i?t?] ????? ?????	[kun??i?tjum] or [kun??i?tim] ????? ???????? or ????? ??????
80.	[?i?t?] ?????	[?i?tjum] or [?i?tjim] ???????? or ??????
81.	[ak??i?t?] ????? ?????	[ak??i?tjum] or [ak??i?tim] ????? ???????? or ????? ??????
82.	[d?ji?i?t?] ????? ?????	[d?ji?i?tjum] or [d?ji?i?tjum] ????? ???????? or ????? ??????
83.	[treji?i?t?] ???????? ?????	[treji?i?tjum] or [treji?i?tim] ???????? ???????? or ???????? ??????
84.	[t?s?ji?i?t?] ????? ?????	[t?s?ji?i?tjum] or [t?s?ji?i?tim] ????? ???????? or ????? ??????
85.	[p???t?s??i?t?] or [p??t?s??i?t?] ?????? ????? or ?????? ?????	[p???t?s??i?tjum] or [p??t?s??i?tjum] ?????? ???????? or ?????? ???????? [p???t?s??i?tim] or [p??t?s??i?tim] ?????? ?????? or ?????? ??????
86.	[?eji?i?t?] ?????? ?????	[?eji?i?tjum] or [?eji?i?tim] ?????? ???????? or ?????? ??????
87.	[sat??i?t?] ????? ?????	[sat??i?tjum] or [sat??i?tim] ????? ???????? or ????? ??????
88.	[ar??i?t?] ?????????	[ar??i?tjum] or [ar??i?tim] ???????????? or ??????????
89.	[kun?namat?] ????? ??????	[kun?namatjum] or [kun?namatim] ????? ????????? or ????? ???????
90.	[namat?] ??????	[namatjum] or [namatim] ????????? or ???????
91.	[ak?namat?] ????? ??????	[ak?namatjum] or [ak?namatim] ????? ????????? or ????? ???????
92.	[dunamat?] ????????	[dunamatjum] or [dunamatim] ??????????? or ?????????
93.	[trunamat?] or [tr?namat?] ?????????? or ??????????	[trunamatjum] or [trunamatim] ????????????? or ??????????? [tr?namatjum] or [tr?namatim] ????????????? or ???????????
94.	[t?sunamat?] ????????	[t?sunamatjum] or [t?sunamatim] ??????????? or ?????????
95.	[p???t?s?namat?] or [p??t?s?namat?] ?????? ?????? or ?????? ??????	[p???t?s?namatjum] or [p??t?s?namatjum] ?????? ????????? or ?????? ????????? [p???t?s?namatim] or [p??t?s?namatim] ?????? ??????? or ?????? ???????
96.	[?unamat?] ????????	[?unamatjum] or [?unamatim] ??????????? or ?????????
97.	[sat?namat?] ????? ??????	[sat?namatjum] or [sat?namatim] ????? ????????? or ????? ???????
98.	[ar?namat?] ??????????	[ar?namatjum] or [ar?namatjim] ????????????? or ???????????
99.	[nam?namat?] ????? ??????	[nam?namatjum] or [nam?namatim] ????? ????????? or ????? ???????
100.	[hat?] ????	[hatyum] or [hatim] ??????? or ?????
101.	[ak? hat? t? ak?] ???? ???? ??? ????	[ak? hat? t? ?kjum] or [ak? hat? t? ?kim] ???? ???? ??? ?????? or ???? ???? ??? ????
102.	[ak? hat? t? z?] ???? ???? ??? ??	[ak? hat? t? dojum] or [ak? hat? t? dojim] ???? ???? ??? ????? or ???? ???? ??? ?????
200.	[z? hat?] ?? ????	[du hatyum] or [duhatim] ????????? or ???????
300.	[tre hat?] ????? ????	[tr? hatyum] or [tr? hatim] ??????????? or ?????????
400.	[t?so?r hat?] ??? ????	[t?su hatyum] or [t?su hatim] ????????? or ???????
500.	[p???t?s? hat?] or [p??t?s? hat?] ?????? ???? or ?????? ????	[p???t?s? hatyum] or [p??t?s? hatyum] ?????? ??????? or ?????? ??????? [p???t?s? hatim] or [p??t?s? hatim] ?????? ????? or ?????? ?????
600.	[?e hat?] ??? ????	[?e hatyum] or [?e hatim] ??? ??????? or ??? ?????
700.	[sat? hat?] ???? ????	[?at? hatyum] or [?at? hatim] ????? ??????? or ????? ?????
800.	[???? ?at?] ??? ????	[???? ?atjum] or [???? ?atim] ??? ??????? or ??? ?????
900.	[na? ?at?] ??? ????	[na? ?atjum] or [na? ?atim] ??? ??????? or ??? ?????
1000.	[sa?s] ???	[s??sjum] or [s??sim] ??????? or ?????
1001.	[ak? sa?s ak?] ???? ??? ????	[ak? sa?s ?kjum] or [ak? sa?s ?kim] ???? ??? ?????? or ???? ??? ????
1002.	[ak? sa?s z?] ???? ??? ??	[ak? sa?s dojum] or [ak? sa?s dojim] ???? ??? ????? or ???? ??? ?????
1100.	[ak? sa?s hat?] ???? ??? ???? or [kah ?at?] or [ka?h ?at?] ???? ???? or ??? ????	[ak? sa?s hatjum] or [ak? sa?s hatim] ???? ??? ??????? or ???? ??? ????? or [kah ?atjum] or [ka?h ?atjum] ???? ??????? or ??? ??????? [kah ?atim] or [ka?h ?atim] ???? ????? or ??? ?????
1500.	[ak? sa?s p??t?s? hat?] ???? ??? ?????? ???? or [panda?h ?at?] ??????? ????	[ak? sa?s p??t?s? hatjum] or [ak? sa?s p??t?s? hatim] ???? ??? ?????? ??????? or ???? ??? ?????? ????? or [panda?h ?atjum] or [panda?h ?atim] ??????? ??????? or ??????? ?????
10,000.	[d?h sa?s] or [da?h sa?s] ??? ??? or ??? ???	[d?h s??sjum] or [da?h s??sjum] ??? ??????? or ??? ??????? [d?h s??sim] or [da?h s??sim] ??? ????? or ??? ?????
Hundred thousand	[lat???] ????	[lat???jum] or [lat???im] ???????? or ??????
Million	[d?h lat???] or [da?h lat???] ??? ???? or ??? ????	[d?h lat???jum] or [da?h lat???jum] ??? ???????? or ??? ???????? [d?h lat???im] or [da?h lat???im] ??? ?????? or ??? ??????
Ten million	[k?ro?r] or [karo?r] ????? or ?????	[k?ro?rjum] or [karo?rjum] ????????? or ????????? [k?ro?rim] or [karo?rim] ??????? or ???????
Billion	[arab] ?????	[arabjum] or [arabim] ????????? or ???????
Hundred billion	[k?arab] ??????	[k?arabjum] or [k?arabim] ?????????? or ????????

The ordinal number "1st" which is [?k?um] ?????? for its masculine gender and [?kim] ???? for its feminine gender is also known as [ɡ??n?uk] ???????? and [ɡ??nit??] ?????? respectively.

Vocabulary

Kashmiri is an Indo-Aryan language and was heavily influenced by Sanskrit, especially early on. After the arrival of Islamic administrative rule in India, Kashmiri acquired many Persian loanwords. In modern times, Kashmiri vocabulary has imported words from English, Hindustani and Punjabi.

Preservation of old Indo-Aryan vocabulary

Kashmiri retains several features of Old Indo-Aryan that have been lost in other modern Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi and Sindhi. Some vocabulary features that Kashmiri preserves clearly date from the Vedic Sanskrit era and had already been lost even in Classical Sanskrit. This includes the word-form yodvai (meaning if), which is mainly found in Vedic Sanskrit texts. Classical Sanskrit and modern Indo-Aryan use the word yadi instead.

First person pronoun

Both the Indo-Aryan and Iranian branches of the Indo-Iranian family have demonstrated a strong tendency to eliminate the distinctive first person pronoun ("I") used in the nominative (subject) case. The Indo-European root for this is reconstructed as *e?Hom, which is preserved in Sanskrit as aham and in Avestan Persian as azam. This contrasts with the m- form ("me", "my") that is used for the accusative, genitive, dative, ablative cases. Sanskrit and Avestan both used forms such as ma(-m). However, in languages such as Modern Persian, Baluchi, Hindi and Punjabi, the distinct nominative form has been entirely lost and replaced with m- in words such as ma-n and mai. However, Kashmiri belongs to a relatively small set that preserves the distinction. 'I' is ba/bi/bo in various Kashmiri dialects, distinct from the other me terms. 'Mine' is myon in Kashmiri. Other Indo-Aryan languages that preserve this feature include Dogri (aun vs me-), Gujarati (hu-n vs ma-ri), Konkani (hā?v vs mhazo), and Braj (hau-M vs mai-M). The Iranian Pashto preserves it too (za vs. maa), as well as Nuristani languages, such as Askunu (ai vs i?).

Variations

There are very minor differences between the Kashmiri spoken by Hindus and Muslims. For 'fire', a traditional Hindu uses the word ????? [oɡun] while a Muslim more often uses the Arabic word ??? [na?r].

Sample text

Perso-Arabic script

Art. 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

???? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ??? ?

[s??ri? insa?n t???i a?za?d za?m?t? . ??aqa?r t? hoqu?q t???i hi?i? . timan t???u so?t?? samad?? ata? karn? a?mut t? timan pazi b??j bara?d?ri? h?ndis d??azba?tas tahat ak? ?kis aka?r baka?r jun]

"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."

Sharada script

Verses by Lalleshwari:

???????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ???????????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ?? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????????? ????????

[o?muj akuj at???ur porum, suj ma?li ro?um ??ndas manz, suj ma?li kani p?a?? gorum t? t?sorum, ??s?s sa?s t? sapnis s?n.]

"I kept reciting the unique divine word "Om" and kept it safe in my heart through my resolute dedication and love. I was simply ash and by its divine grace got metamorphosed into gold."

???????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????????????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ????????

[akuj omka?r jus na?bi dare?, kumbe? brahma?n?as sum gare?, ak? suj mant??r t?s?atas kare?, tas sa?s mant??r kja? kare?.]

One who recites the divine word "Omkār" by devotion is capable to build a bridge between his own and the cosmic consciousness. By staying committed to this sacred word, one doesn't require any other mantra out of thousands others.

See also

• Kashmir Valley
• Literature of Kashmir
• Kashmiri Wikipedia
• List of Kashmiri poets
• List of topics on the land and the people of “Jammu and Kashmir”
• Shina language
• States of India by Kashmiri speakers

Bibliography

• Chopra, R. M (2013). "Indo-Persian Literature in Kashmir". The rise, growth, and decline of Indo-Persian literature (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Iran Culture House. OCLC 909254259.
• Grierson, George Abraham (1911). "Indo-Aryan Languages" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclop?dia Britannica. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 487–490.
• Koul, Omkar N; Wali, Kashi (2006). Modern Kashmiri Grammar (PDF). Springfield: Dunwoody Press. ISBN 1-931546-07-X. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
• Wade, TR (1888). A Grammar of the Kashmiri Language. SPCK.

External links

• Bhat, Roop Krishen (1982). Kashir Kitab level 1 : (state level school reader in Kashmiri for non-Kashmiri speaking students). Central Institute of Indian Languages.
• Bhat, Roop Krishen (1988). Urdu Kashmiri Reader. JK Press.
• Ganjoo, Triloki Nath (1979). K??shur-Hindi Reader. K??shur Department, University of Kashmir.
• Grierson, George Abraham (1932). A dictionary of the Kashmiri language. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
• Handoo, Jawaharlal; Handoo, Lalita (1975). Hindi-Kashmiri Common Words. Central Institute of Indian languages.
• Handoo, Jawaharlal (1973). Kashmiri Phonetic Reader. Central Institute of Indian Languages.
• Hassan, Sheeba. "A pronouncing dictionary of Kashmiri language". Digital Dictionaries of South Asia. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
• Hindi-Kashmiri Conversational Guide. Central Hindi Directorate, Government of India. 1990.
• Hindi-Kashmiri-English Trilingual Dictionary. Vol. 1. Central Hindi Directorate, Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development (Government of India). 1988.
• Hindi-Kashmiri-English Trilingual Dictionary. Vol. 2. Central Hindi Directorate, Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development (Government of India). 1988.
• Hindi-Kashmiri-English Trilingual Dictionary. Vol. 3. Central Hindi Directorate, Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development (Government of India). 1988.
• Hinton, James Knowles (1885). A Dictionary of Kashmiri Proverbs & Sayings: Explained and Illustrated From the Rich and Interesting Folklore of the Valley. Bombay: Education Society's Press.
• Hook, Peter E. 1976. Is Kashmiri an SVO language? Indian Linguistics 37: 133–142.
• "Indo Wordnet : A wordnet of Indian languages".
• Kamil, Amin (1966). Achar Zan. Walidarul Kitabat.
• Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class1
• Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 2
• Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 3
• Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 6
• Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 8
• Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 10
• Koshur: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri
• Koul, Ashok K (2008). Lexical Borrowings in Kashmiri. Delhi: Indian Institute of Language Studies. ISBN 9788186323298.
• Koul, Omkar Nath (1985). An Intensive Course in Kashmiri. Central Institute of Indian Languages. ISBN 9780781801768.
• Koul, Omkar Nath (1995). An intermediate course in Kashmiri Language. Central Institute of Indian Languages. ISBN 8173420270.
• Koul, Omkar Nath (1992). A Dictionary of Kashmiri Proverbs (PDF). Delhi: Indian Institute of Language Studies. ISBN 9788186323212.
• Koul, Omkar Nath (2000). k???ir d?pit? dik??n?ri? (A dictionary of Kashmiri Proverbs). Central Institute of Indian Languages.
• Koul, Omkar Nath; Talashi, Rattan Lal (1999). Punjabi Kashmiri Kosh. Bhasha Vibhag Punjab.
• Koul, Omkar Nath; Kumari, B Syamala (1996). Nursery Rhymes in Kashmiri. Central Institute of Indian Languages.
• Koul, Omkar N; Bhat, Roop Krishen; Betab, Brij Nath (2010). English – Kashmiri Administrative Terminology. New Delhi: Commission for Scientific and Technical Terminology.
• Koul, Omkar N; Raina, S.N.; Bhat, Roop Krishen (2000). Kashmiri-English Dictionary for Second Language Learners. Central Institute of Indian Languages.
• Library and Information Science Glossary (English-Hindi-Kashmiri). Commission for Scientific and Technical Terminology, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. 2018.
• "Neab", Kashmiri Language Literary Magazine
• Raina, Soom Nath (2011). An advance course in Kashmiri. Central institute of Indian languages.
• "Sangarmal", Kashmiri Language Newspaper
• Shauq, Shafi (2017). Kaesher Lugaat (A dictionary of the Kashmiri Language). Srinagar: Ali Mohammad and Sons.
• "Soan Meeraas", Kashmiri Language Newspaper
• Subbiah, Pon (2000). Tests of Language Proficiency : Kashmiri. Central Institute of Indian Languages.
• Tickoo, Jawahir Lal (2006). Kashmiri-English Dictionary. Indian Institute of Language Studies.
• Toshakhani, S. K.; Kaul, J. Lal; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Mohiuddin, Akhtar (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 1. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
• Toshakhani, S. K.; Kaul, J. Lal; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Mohiuddin, Akhtar (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 2. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
• Toshakhani, S. K.; Kaul, J. Lal; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Mohiuddin, Akhtar (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 3. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
• Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan; Gowhar, Ghulam Nabi (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 4. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
• Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan; Gowhar, Ghulam Nabi (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 5. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
• Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan; Gowhar, Ghulam Nabi (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 6. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
• Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 7. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
• the word koshur (????????????) written on New Testament in Kashmiri (manuscript)